Biotechnology/Genetic engineering has applications in medicine,
research industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organism.
1. Medicine:
In medicine, modern biotechnology or genetic engineering finds
promising applications in such areas as:
•
Pharma-cogenomics
•
Pharmaceutical Drugs Production
•
Genetic Testing
•
Gene Therapy
•
(a)
Pharmacogenomics:
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an
individual affects his/her body's response to drugs. It is a coined word
derived from the words "pharmacology" and "genomics". It is
hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The
vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are
adapted to each person's genetic makeup.
Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:
1.
Development of tailor-made medicines: Using pharmacogenomics,
pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and
RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These
tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to
decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. Determining
appropriate drug dosage: Knowing a patient's genetics will enable
doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a
medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the
likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in
drug discovery and approval process: The discovery of potential therapies will be made
easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases
and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets
for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly
shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better
vaccines: Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms
transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the
(b) Pharmaceutical Products:
In medicine genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce
insulin, human growth hormones, human albumin, monoclonal antibodies,
anti-hemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs.
Modern
biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered
microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like
synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or
transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such
as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain
pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the
development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark
breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C,
cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and
cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental
in developing molecular diagnostic devices than can be used to define the
target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for
example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test
and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the
protein HER2.
Genetic engineering is used to create animal models of human
diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered
animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer, obesity, heart
disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson
disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. Also
genetically modified pigs have been bred with the aim of increasing the success
of pig to human organ transplantation.
(c) Genetic
Testing:
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA
molecule itself. A scientist scans a
patient's DNA sample for mutated Sequences.
There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a
researcher may design short pieces of DNA ("probes") whose sequences
are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their
complement among the base pairs of an individual's genome. If the mutated
sequence is present in the patient's genome, the probe will bind to it and flag
the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by
comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient's gene to disease in healthy
individuals or their Progeny.
Genetic testing is now used for:
•
Prenatal diagnostic Screening
•
Newborn screening
•
Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders
•
Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing
adult-onset cancers
•
Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals, etc.
•
Forensic/identity testing
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them
are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect
mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle
cell anemia, and Huntington's disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful
of more complex Conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However,
gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition
because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to
different people and populations.
(d) Gene
Therapy:
Gene Therapy is the genetic
engineering of humans by
replacing defective human genes with functional copies. For instance, gene
therapy can be used for treating or even curing genetic and acquired diseases
like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective
genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity.
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy
treatment:
1. Ex vivo, which means
"outside the body" - Cells from the patient's blood or bone marrow
are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus
carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene
becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the
laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means "inside the body" - No cells are
removed from the patient's body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired
gene to cells in the patient's body.
2. RESEARCH
Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists.
Genes and other
Organisms are genetically engineered to discover
the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of
the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it
interacts with.
3.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Micro organisms are used in industrial processes
to produce many important chemicals, antibiotics, organic compounds and
pharmaceuticals. Using living organisms as chemical synthesis, industries
reduce many risks and pollution problems. Micro organisms have been exploited
for hundreds of years. Industrial Biotechnology deals with production of many
industrially important products by using micro organisms. Some of the important products such as wine,
beer, and many fermented beverages are made by fermentation processes using
micro organism.
4.
ENVIRONMENT
Bio-remediation is the natural process whereby
bacteria, fungi are able to break down hydrocarbons and other organic molecules
to simple non-toxic chemical compounds. Organisms have shown capabilities to
degrade polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as well as oils, pesticides,
herbicides. Polychlorinated phenols are very toxic and cause a lot of damage to
the environment. Organisms have been modified by genetic engineering to degrade
oil spilled on water body. Oil spills from tanker accidents and other calamities have
been treated by microorganisms.
5. AGRICULTURE
(a)
Improved Yield from Crops:
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology,
one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to
impart a new character that would increase its yield.
Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that
are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated
with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes,
each of which has overall yield. There is, therefore, much scientific work to
be done in this area.
(b)
Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses:
Crops containing genes that will enable them to
withstand biotic and abiotic stresses can be developed. For example, drought
and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop
productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these
extreme Conditions in the hope of finding the genes that ena” them to do so and
eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops.
(c) Increased Nutritional Qualities of Food
Crops:
Proteins in foods may be modified to increase
their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed
to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.
(d)
Improved Taste, Texture or Appearance of Food:
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down
the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be
transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves
the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could
expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in
spoilage. The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was
transformed to delay its ripening.
(e)
Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals:
Most of the current commercial applications of
modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers
on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium
that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation
process has been used to produce an
insecticidal spray from these bacteria.
(f)
Production of novel substances in crop plants:
Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses
other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids
for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, rice,
tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically-engineered
to produce insulin and certain vaccines.
If future clinical trials prove successful, the
advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing
countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown
vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to
transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold
while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes (which
are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but
also a source of infections if contaminated).
6.
BIO-ART AND ENTERTAINMENT
Genetic engineering is also being used to create
Bio-Art. Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and
white photographs.
Genetic engineering has
also been used to create novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations,
blue roses, and glowing fish.
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